Then Double the Charge on the Mobile Ion to 2 and Record the Force Again

Spacecraft engine that generates thrust past generating a jet of ions

This article is about a kind of reaction engine. For the air propulsion concept, encounter ionocraft.

NEXIS ion engine test (2005)

A prototype of a xenon ion engine existence tested at NASA'southward Jet Propulsion Laboratory

An ion thruster, ion drive, or ion engine is a course of electrical propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity.

An ion thruster ionizes a neutral gas by extracting some electrons out of atoms, creating a deject of positive ions. These ion thrusters rely mainly on electrostatics as ions are accelerated past the Coulomb force along an electric field. Temporarily stored electrons are finally reinjected by a neutralizer in the cloud of ions after it has passed through the electrostatic grid, so the gas becomes neutral again and can freely disperse in infinite without whatever further electrical interaction with the thruster. Past contrast, electromagnetic thrusters utilise the Lorentz force to accelerate all species (free electrons besides every bit positive and negative ions) in the same direction whatever their electrical charge, and are specifically referred to every bit plasma propulsion engines, where the electrical field is not in the management of the acceleration.^{[1] [ii]}

Ion thrusters in functioning typically consume 1–seven kW of ability, have frazzle velocities around xx–l km/due south (I _sp 2000–5000s), and possess thrusts of 25–250 mN and a propulsive efficiency 65–eighty%^{[3] [4]} though experimental versions take achieved 100 kW (130 hp), five N (1.ane lb_f).^[5]

The Deep Infinite 1 spacecraft, powered by an ion thruster, changed velocity by 4.3 km/s (two.7 mi/s) while consuming less than 74 kg (163 lb) of xenon. The Dawn spacecraft broke the tape, with a velocity change of 11.5 km/southward (41,000 km/h), though information technology was only half as efficient, requiring 425 kg (937 lb) of xenon.^[6]

Applications include control of the orientation and position of orbiting satellites (some satellites accept dozens of low-power ion thrusters) and use as a main propulsion engine for low-mass robotic space vehicles (such as Deep Space one and Dawn).^{[3] [4]}

Ion thrust engines are practical only in the vacuum of space and cannot take vehicles through the atmosphere because ion engines practise not piece of work in the presence of ions exterior the engine; additionally, the engine'due south minuscule thrust cannot overcome any pregnant air resistance. Moreover, however the presence of an atmosphere (or lack thereof) an ion engine cannot generate sufficient thrust to achieve initial liftoff from any celestial trunk with meaning surface gravity. For these reasons, spacecraft must rely on other methods such every bit conventional chemical rockets or non-rocket launch technologies to accomplish their initial orbit.

Origins [edit]

The start person who wrote a paper introducing the idea publicly was Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1911.^[7] The technique was recommended for most-vacuum atmospheric condition at high altitude, but thrust was demonstrated with ionized air streams at atmospheric pressure level. The thought appeared again in Hermann Oberth's "Wege zur Raumschiffahrt" (Ways to Spaceflight), published in 1923, where he explained his thoughts on the mass savings of electrical propulsion, predicted its use in spacecraft propulsion and attitude control, and advocated electrostatic acceleration of charged gasses.^[eight]

A working ion thruster was congenital by Harold R. Kaufman in 1959 at the NASA Glenn Enquiry Center facilities. Information technology was similar to a gridded electrostatic ion thruster and used mercury for propellant. Suborbital tests were conducted during the 1960s and in 1964, the engine was sent into a suborbital flight aboard the Space Electric Rocket Test-1 (SERT-1).^{[9] [10]} It successfully operated for the planned 31 minutes before falling to World.^[11] This test was followed by an orbital test, SERT-ii, in 1970.^{[12] [thirteen]}

An alternate grade of electrical propulsion, the Hall effect thruster, was studied independently in the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. Hall upshot thrusters operated on Soviet satellites from 1972 until the late 1990s, mainly used for satellite stabilization in northward–south and in e–west directions. Some 100–200 engines completed missions on Soviet and Russian satellites.^[xiv] Soviet thruster design was introduced to the West in 1992 later on a team of electric propulsion specialists, under the support of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, visited Soviet laboratories.

General working principle [edit]

Ion thrusters use beams of ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules) to create thrust in accordance with momentum conservation. The method of accelerating the ions varies, but all designs have advantage of the accuse/mass ratio of the ions. This ratio means that relatively modest potential differences can create high exhaust velocities. This reduces the amount of reaction mass or propellant required, but increases the corporeality of specific power required compared to chemical rockets. Ion thrusters are therefore able to reach loftier specific impulses. The drawback of the low thrust is low dispatch considering the mass of the electric power unit direct correlates with the amount of power. This low thrust makes ion thrusters unsuited for launching spacecraft into orbit, but effective for in-space propulsion over longer periods of time.

Ion thrusters are categorized equally either electrostatic or electromagnetic. The main difference is the method for accelerating the ions.

• Electrostatic ion thrusters employ the Coulomb force and accelerate the ions in the direction of the electric field.
• Electromagnetic ion thrusters employ the Lorentz force to move the ions.

Electric ability for ion thrusters is usually provided past solar panels. However, for sufficiently large distances from the sun, nuclear power may be used. In each example, the power supply mass is proportional to the peak power that tin be supplied, and both provide, for this awarding, well-nigh no limit to the energy.^[15]

Electric thrusters tend to produce depression thrust, which results in depression dispatch. Defining ${\displaystyle 1g=9.81\;\mathrm {m/southward^{2}} }$ , the standard gravitational acceleration of Earth, and noting that ${\displaystyle F=ma\implies a=F/m}$ , this can be analyzed. An NSTAR thruster producing a thrust strength of 92 mN^[16] volition accelerate a satellite with a mass of oneMg by 0.092N / yard kg = 9.2×10⁻⁵ yard/s² (or 9.38×x^{−half dozen} yard). Nonetheless, this acceleration can be sustained for months or years at a time, in contrast to the very curt burns of chemical rockets.

$${\displaystyle F=2{\frac {\eta P}{gI_{\text{sp}}}}}$$

Where:

• F is the thrust force in Due north,
• η is the efficiency
• P is the electrical ability used past the thruster in W, and
• I _sp is the specific impulse in seconds.

The ion thruster is not the most promising blazon of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, but it is the most successful in practice to appointment.^[iv] An ion drive would crave ii days to accelerate a motorcar to highway speed in vacuum. The technical characteristics, particularly thrust, are considerably junior to the prototypes described in literature,^{[3] [4]} technical capabilities are express by the infinite charge created by ions. This limits the thrust density (strength per cantankerous-sectional surface area of the engine).^[4] Ion thrusters create small thrust levels (the thrust of Deep Space 1 is approximately equal to the weight of one sail of paper^[iv]) compared to conventional chemical rockets, only attain high specific impulse, or propellant mass efficiency, by accelerating the exhaust to high speed. The ability imparted to the exhaust increases with the square of exhaust velocity while thrust increase is linear. Conversely, chemical rockets provide high thrust, but are limited in total impulse by the modest amount of energy that can exist stored chemically in the propellants.^[17] Given the practical weight of suitable ability sources, the acceleration from an ion thruster is oftentimes less than ane-thousandth of standard gravity. Nevertheless, since they operate every bit electric (or electrostatic) motors, they convert a greater fraction of input power into kinetic exhaust ability. Chemical rockets operate as heat engines, and Carnot'southward theorem limits the frazzle velocity.

Electrostatic thrusters [edit]

Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters [edit]

A diagram of how a gridded electrostatic ion engine (multipole magnetic cusp type) works

Gridded electrostatic ion thrusters development started in the 1960s^[xviii] and, since then, it has been used for commercial satellite propulsion^{[19] [xx] [21]} and scientific missions.^{[22] [23]} Their principal feature is that the propellant ionization process is physically separated from the ion acceleration procedure.^[24]

The ionization procedure takes identify in the discharge chamber, where by bombarding the propellant with energetic electrons, as the energy transferred ejects valence electrons from the propellant gas's atoms. These electrons can be provided by a hot cathode filament and accelerated through the potential departure towards an anode. Alternatively, the electrons tin can be accelerated by an oscillating induced electric field created by an alternating electromagnet, which results in a self-sustaining discharge without a cathode (radio frequency ion thruster).

The positively charged ions are extracted past a system consisting of 2 or 3 multi-aperture grids. After inbound the filigree system near the plasma sheath, the ions are accelerated by the potential difference between the first grid and 2nd grid (chosen the screen grid and the accelerator grid, respectively) to the concluding ion energy of (typically) one–2 keV, which generates thrust.

Ion thrusters emit a axle of positively charged ions. To proceed the spacecraft from accumulating a accuse, another cathode is placed near the engine to emit electrons into the ion beam, leaving the propellant electrically neutral. This prevents the beam of ions from being attracted (and returning) to the spacecraft, which would cancel the thrust.^[11]

Gridded electrostatic ion thruster enquiry (by/present):

• NASA Solar Engineering Application Readiness (NSTAR), 2.iii kW, used on two successful missions
• NASA'due south Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (Adjacent), 6.9 kW, flight qualification hardware built
• Nuclear Electrical Xenon Ion System (NEXIS)
• High Power Electric Propulsion (HiPEP), 25 kW, test example built and run briefly on the ground
• EADS Radio-frequency Ion Thruster (RIT)
• Dual-Stage four-Grid (DS4G)^{[25] [26]}

Hall effect thrusters [edit]

Schematic of a Hall issue thruster

Hall result thrusters accelerate ions by ways of an electrical potential between a cylindrical anode and a negatively charged plasma that forms the cathode. The majority of the propellant (typically xenon) is introduced near the anode, where it ionizes and flows toward the cathode; ions accelerate towards and through it, picking up electrons as they get out to neutralize the axle and get out the thruster at loftier velocity.

The anode is at ane end of a cylindrical tube. In the center is a fasten that is wound to produce a radial magnetic field between it and the surrounding tube. The ions are largely unaffected by the magnetic field, since they are too massive. However, the electrons produced near the end of the spike to create the cathode are trapped by the magnetic field and held in place by their attraction to the anode. Some of the electrons spiral downwardly towards the anode, circulating around the spike in a Hall current. When they reach the anode they affect the uncharged propellant and cause it to be ionized, before finally reaching the anode and completing the circuit.^[27]

Field-emission electric propulsion [edit]

Field-emission electric propulsion (FEEP) thrusters may utilise caesium or indium propellants. The design comprises a small propellant reservoir that stores the liquid metallic, a narrow tube or a system of parallel plates that the liquid flows through and an accelerator (a ring or an elongated aperture in a metallic plate) about a millimeter by the tube terminate. Caesium and indium are used due to their high atomic weights, low ionization potentials and low melting points. Once the liquid metal reaches the finish of the tube, an electrical field applied betwixt the emitter and the accelerator causes the liquid surface to deform into a series of protruding cusps, or Taylor cones. At a sufficiently loftier applied voltage, positive ions are extracted from the tips of the cones.^{[28] [29] [thirty]} The electric field created by the emitter and the accelerator then accelerates the ions. An external source of electrons neutralizes the positively charged ion stream to prevent charging of the spacecraft.

Electromagnetic thrusters [edit]

Pulsed inductive thrusters [edit]

Pulsed inductive thrusters (PIT) use pulses instead of continuous thrust and take the ability to run on power levels on the order of megawatts (MW). PITs consist of a large gyre encircling a cone shaped tube that emits the propellant gas. Ammonia is the gas nearly commonly used. For each pulse, a large charge builds up in a grouping of capacitors behind the coil and is then released. This creates a current that moves circularly in the direction of jθ. The electric current then creates a magnetic field in the outward radial management (Br), which then creates a current in the gas that has just been released in the opposite direction of the original current. This opposite electric current ionizes the ammonia. The positively charged ions are accelerated abroad from the engine due to the electric field jθ crossing the magnetic field Br, due to the Lorentz Forcefulness.^[31]

Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster [edit]

Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters and lithium Lorentz force accelerator (LiLFA) thrusters utilise roughly the aforementioned idea. The LiLFA thruster builds on the MPD thruster. Hydrogen, argon, ammonia and nitrogen can be used every bit propellant. In a certain configuration, the ambience gas in low Earth orbit (LEO) can be used as a propellant. The gas enters the principal bedroom where it is ionized into plasma past the electric field between the anode and the cathode. This plasma so conducts electricity between the anode and the cathode, closing the circuit. This new current creates a magnetic field around the cathode, which crosses with the electric field, thereby accelerating the plasma due to the Lorentz force.

The LiLFA thruster uses the same full general idea equally the MPD thruster, with two main differences. First, the LiLFA uses lithium vapor, which can exist stored as a solid. The other difference is that the single cathode is replaced by multiple, smaller cathode rods packed into a hollow cathode tube. MPD cathodes are hands corroded due to constant contact with the plasma. In the LiLFA thruster, the lithium vapor is injected into the hollow cathode and is not ionized to its plasma form/corrode the cathode rods until it exits the tube. The plasma is and so accelerated using the same Lorentz forcefulness.^{[32] [33] [34]}

In 2013, Russian company the Chemical Automatics Design Agency successfully conducted a bench test of their MPD engine for long-distance space travel.^[35]

Electrodeless plasma thrusters [edit]

Electrodeless plasma thrusters take two unique features: the removal of the anode and cathode electrodes and the ability to throttle the engine. The removal of the electrodes eliminates erosion, which limits lifetime on other ion engines. Neutral gas is first ionized past electromagnetic waves and and so transferred to another bedchamber where it is accelerated past an oscillating electric and magnetic field, besides known every bit the ponderomotive force. This separation of the ionization and acceleration stages allows throttling of propellant flow, which so changes the thrust magnitude and specific impulse values.^[36]

Helicon double layer thrusters [edit]

A helicon double layer thruster is a type of plasma thruster that ejects high velocity ionized gas to provide thrust. In this blueprint, gas is injected into a tubular chamber (the source tube) with ane open up end. Radio frequency Air-conditioning power (at 13.56 MHz in the prototype blueprint) is coupled into a especially shaped antenna wrapped around the sleeping room. The electromagnetic wave emitted by the antenna causes the gas to break downwards and form a plasma. The antenna so excites a helicon wave in the plasma, which further heats it. The device has a roughly constant magnetic field in the source tube (supplied past solenoids in the prototype), but the magnetic field diverges and chop-chop decreases in magnitude away from the source region and might be thought of as a kind of magnetic nozzle. In operation, a sharp boundary separates the loftier density plasma inside the source region and the low density plasma in the exhaust, which is associated with a sharp change in electric potential. Plasma properties change rapidly across this boundary, which is known as a current-free electric double layer. The electrical potential is much higher inside the source region than in the exhaust and this serves both to confine most of the electrons and to accelerate the ions away from the source region. Enough electrons escape the source region to ensure that the plasma in the exhaust is neutral overall.

Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) [edit]

The proposed Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) functions by using radio waves to ionize a propellant into a plasma, and so using a magnetic field to accelerate the plasma out of the back of the rocket engine to generate thrust. The VASIMR is currently beingness developed by Ad Astra Rocket Visitor, headquartered in Houston, Texas, with help from Canada-based Nautel, producing the 200 kW RF generators for ionizing propellant. Some of the components and "plasma shoots" experiments are tested in a laboratory settled in Republic of liberia, Costa Rica. This projection is led by one-time NASA astronaut Dr. Franklin Chang-Díaz (CRC-USA). A 200 kW VASIMR test engine was in word to be fitted in the outside of the International Space Station, equally function of the plan to test the VASIMR in space – even so plans for this examination onboard ISS were canceled in 2015 by NASA, with a free flying VASIMR test existence discussed by Ad Astra instead.^[37] An envisioned 200 megawatt engine could reduce the duration of flight from Earth to Jupiter or Saturn from six years to 14 months, and Mars from seven months to 39 days.^[38]

Microwave electrothermal thrusters [edit]

Thruster components

Discharge chamber

Under a research grant from the NASA Lewis Research Center during the 1980s and 1990s, Martin C. Hawley and Jes Asmussen led a team of engineers in developing a Microwave Electrothermal Thruster (MET).^[39]

In the discharge chamber, microwave (MW) energy flows into the center containing a high level of ions (I), causing neutral species in the gaseous propellant to ionize. Excited species flow out (FES) through the low ion region (II) to a neutral region (3) where the ions consummate their recombination, replaced with the menses of neutral species (FNS) towards the center. Meanwhile, energy is lost to the bedchamber walls through heat conduction and convection (HCC), forth with radiations (Rad). The remaining energy captivated into the gaseous propellant is converted into thrust.

Radioisotope thruster [edit]

A theoretical propulsion organization has been proposed, based on alpha particles (He ²⁺
or ⁴
₂ He ²⁺
indicating a helium ion with a +two accuse) emitted from a radioisotope uni-directionally through a hole in its chamber. A neutralising electron gun would produce a tiny amount of thrust with high specific impulse in the order of millions of seconds due to the high relativistic speed of alpha particles.^[40]

A variant of this uses a graphite-based grid with a static DC loftier voltage to increase thrust every bit graphite has high transparency to alpha particles if it is also irradiated with brusk wave UV low-cal at the correct wavelength from a solid state emitter. Information technology also permits lower energy and longer one-half life sources which would be advantageous for a space awarding. Helium backfill has also been suggested as a manner to increase electron mean free path.

Comparisons [edit]

Exam data of some ion thrusters

Thruster	Propellant	Input power (kW)	Specific impulse (south)	Thrust (mN)	Thruster mass (kg)	Notes
NSTAR	Xenon	2.3	1700– 3300 [41]	92 max.[16]	eight.33 [42]	Used on the Deep Infinite ane and Dawn space probes
PPS-1350 Hall effect	Xenon	1.v	1660	90	5.3
Side by side[sixteen]	Xenon	6.ix[43]	4190 [43] [44] [45]	236 max.[16] [45]	<13.five [46]	To be used in DART mission
X3[47]	Xenon or Krypton[48]	102[47]	1800–2650[49]	5400 [47]	230 [49] [47]
NEXIS[50]	Xenon	20.v
RIT 22[51]	Xenon	five
BHT8000[52]	Xenon	8	2210	449	25
Hall effect	Xenon	75[ citation needed ]
FEEP	Liquid caesium	half dozen×10−five – 0.06	6000– x000 [29]	0.001–1[29]
NPT30-I2	Iodine	0.034-0.066 [53]	yard– 2500 [53]	0.five–1.five[53]	1.two
AEPS[54]	Xenon	thirteen.3	2900	600	25	To be used in Lunar Gateway PPE module.

Experimental thrusters (no mission to engagement)

Thruster	Propellant	Input ability (kW)	Specific impulse (s)	Thrust (mN)	Thruster mass (kg)	Notes
Hall effect	Bismuth	1.9[55]	1520 (anode)[55]	143 (discharge)[55]
Hall effect	Bismuth	25[ commendation needed ]
Hall upshot	Bismuth	140[ commendation needed ]
Hall effect	Iodine	0.2[56]	1510 (anode)[56]	12.1 (discharge)[56]
Hall effect	Iodine	seven[57]	1950 [57]	413[57]
HiPEP	Xenon	xx–l[58]	6000– 9000 [58]	460–670[58]
MPDT	Hydrogen	1500 [59]	4900 [59]	26300 [ citation needed ]
MPDT	Hydrogen	3750 [59]	3500 [59]	88500 [ commendation needed ]
MPDT	Hydrogen	7500 [ citation needed ]	6000 [ commendation needed ]	60000 [ commendation needed ]
LiLFA	Lithium vapor	500	4077 [ citation needed ]	12000 [ citation needed ]
FEEP	Liquid caesium	6×ten−5 – 0.06	6000– 10000 [29]	0.001–1[29]
VASIMR	Argon	200	3000– 12000	Approximately 5000 [60]	620[61]
CAT[62]	Xenon, iodine, water[63]	0.01	690[64] [65]	1.1–2 (73 mN/kW)[63]	<1[63]
DS4G	Xenon	250	19300	2500 max.	5
KLIMT	Krypton	0.5[66]			4[66]
ID-500	Xenon[67]	32–35	7140	375–750[68]	34.8	To be used in TEM

Lifetime [edit]

Ion thrusters' depression thrust requires continuous operation for a long time to achieve the necessary change in velocity (delta-v) for a item mission. Ion thrusters are designed to provide continuous operation for intervals of weeks to years.

The lifetime of electrostatic ion thrusters is express by several processes.

Gridded thruster life [edit]

In electrostatic gridded designs, charge-exchange ions produced by the axle ions with the neutral gas catamenia can exist accelerated towards the negatively biased accelerator filigree and cause grid erosion. End-of-life is reached when either the filigree structure fails or the holes in the grid get large enough that ion extraction is substantially affected; due east.g., by the occurrence of electron backstreaming. Grid erosion cannot be avoided and is the major lifetime-limiting factor. Thorough filigree pattern and textile selection enable lifetimes of 20,000 hours or more.

A test of the NASA Solar Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) electrostatic ion thruster resulted in xxx,472 hours (roughly 3.5 years) of continuous thrust at maximum power. Mail service-test examination indicated the engine was non approaching failure.^{[69] [iii] [4]} NSTAR operated for years on Dawn.

The NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (Next) project operated continuously for more than 48,000 hours.^[70] The test was conducted in a high vacuum examination bedroom. Over the course of the 5.5+ year test, the engine consumed approximately 870 kilograms of xenon propellant. The full impulse generated would require over 10,000 kilograms of conventional rocket propellant for a similar awarding.

Hall-upshot thruster life [edit]

Hall-effect thrusters suffer from stiff erosion of the ceramic discharge chamber past impact of energetic ions: a test reported in 2010 ^[71] showed erosion of effectually 1 mm per hundred hours of operation, though this is inconsistent with observed on-orbit lifetimes of a few thousand hours.

The Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) is expected to accumulate virtually 5,000 hours and the design aims to achieve a flight model that offers a half-life of at least 23,000 hours^[72] and a full life of about 50,000 hours.^[73]

Propellants [edit]

Ionization free energy represents a big percentage of the energy needed to run ion drives. The ideal propellant is thus easy to ionize and has a high mass/ionization energy ratio. In add-on, the propellant should non erode the thruster to whatsoever great degree to permit long life; and should not contaminate the vehicle.^[74]

Many current designs use xenon gas, as it is easy to ionize, has a reasonably high atomic number, is inert and causes low erosion. However, xenon is globally in short supply and expensive. (~$3,000/kg in 2021^[75])

Some older ion thruster designs used mercury propellant. However, mercury is toxic, tended to contaminate spacecraft, and was difficult to feed accurately. A modern commercial paradigm may be using mercury successfully.^[76]

Since 2018, krypton is used to fuel the Hall effect thrusters aboard Starlink internet satellites, in part due to its lower toll than conventional xenon propellant.^[77]

Other propellants, such as bismuth and iodine, show promise both for gridless designs such as Hall effect thrusters,^{[55] [56] [57]} and gridded ion thrusters.^[78]

Iodine

For the kickoff fourth dimension in space, Iodine was used every bit a propellant for electric propulsion on the NPT30-I2 gridded ion thruster by ThrustMe, on lath the Beihangkongshi-1 mission launched in Nov 2020,^{[79] [80] [81]} with an extensive report published a twelvemonth afterward in the periodical Nature.^[82] The CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster (CAT) used on the Mars Assortment of Ionospheric Research Satellites Using the CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster (MARS-Cat) mission also proposes to use solid iodine as the propellant to minimize storage volume.^{[64] [65]}

VASIMR design (and other plasma-based engines) are theoretically able to use practically any material for propellant. However, in electric current tests the near practical propellant is argon, which is relatively abundant and inexpensive.

Energy efficiency [edit]

Plot of instantaneous propulsive efficiency and

overall efficiency for a vehicle accelerating from rest as percentages of the engine efficiency. Annotation that elevation vehicle efficiency occurs at about ane.6 times exhaust velocity.

Ion thruster efficiency is the kinetic energy of the exhaust jet emitted per second divided by the electric power into the device.

Overall organization energy efficiency is adamant by the propulsive efficiency, which depends on vehicle speed and exhaust speed. Some thrusters tin can vary exhaust speed in operation, but all can exist designed with different frazzle speeds. At the lower end of specific impulse, I _sp, the overall efficiency drops, because ionization takes up a larger percentage energy and at the high stop propulsive efficiency is reduced.

Optimal efficiencies and exhaust velocities for any given mission can be calculated to give minimum overall toll.

Missions [edit]

Ion thrusters accept many in-space propulsion applications. The best applications make use of the long mission interval when meaning thrust is not needed. Examples of this include orbit transfers, mental attitude adjustments, drag compensation for low World orbits, fine adjustments for scientific missions and cargo transport between propellant depots, e.g., for chemical fuels. Ion thrusters can also be used for interplanetary and deep-infinite missions where acceleration rates are non crucial. Ion thrusters are seen as the best solution for these missions, as they crave loftier change in velocity simply do not require rapid dispatch. Continuous thrust over long durations can achieve loftier velocities while consuming far less propellant than traditional chemic rockets.

Demonstration vehicles [edit]

SERT [edit]

Ion propulsion systems were kickoff demonstrated in infinite past the NASA Lewis (now Glenn Research Center) missions Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT)-ane and SERT-2A.^[22] A SERT-1 suborbital flight was launched on 20 July 1964, and successfully proved that the technology operated as predicted in space. These were electrostatic ion thrusters using mercury and caesium as the reaction mass. SERT-2A, launched on 4 February 1970,^{[12] [83]} verified the operation of two mercury ion engines for thousands of running hours.^[12]

Operational missions [edit]

Ion thrusters are routinely used for station-keeping on commercial and military communication satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The Soviet Union pioneered this field, using Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPTs) on satellites starting in the early 1970s.

Two geostationary satellites (ESA's Artemis in 2001–2003^[84] and the United States military's AEHF-1 in 2010–2012^[85]) used the ion thruster to change orbit after the chemical-propellant engine failed. Boeing^[86] began using ion thrusters for station-keeping in 1997 and planned in 2013–2014 to offer a variant on their 702 platform, with no chemic engine and ion thrusters for orbit raising; this permits a significantly lower launch mass for a given satellite capability. AEHF-two used a chemical engine to raise perigee to 16,330 km (ten,150 mi) and proceeded to geosynchronous orbit using electrical propulsion.^[87]

In Earth orbit [edit]

Tiangong space station [edit]

Cathay'southward Tiangong infinite station is fitted with ion thrusters. Tianhe core module is propelled past both chemical thrusters and 4 Hall-effect thrusters,^[88] which are used to suit and maintain the station's orbit. The development of the Hall-outcome thrusters is considered a sensitive topic in China, with scientists "working to improve the technology without attracting attending". Hall-issue thrusters are created with manned mission rubber in mind with endeavour to prevent erosion and damage caused by the accelerated ion particles. A magnetic field and specially designed ceramic shield was created to repel dissentious particles and maintain integrity of the thrusters. According to the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the ion drive used on Tiangong has burned continuously for 8,240 hours without a glitch, indicating their suitability for Chinese space station'south designated 15-twelvemonth lifespan.^[89]

Starlink [edit]

SpaceX's Starlink satellite constellation uses Hall-consequence thrusters powered past krypton to raise orbit, perform maneuvers, and de-orbit at the end of their use.^[90]

GOCE [edit]

ESA'southward Gravity Field and Steady-State Bounding main Circulation Explorer (GOCE) was launched on xvi March 2009. It used ion propulsion throughout its twenty-month mission to combat the air-drag information technology experienced in its depression orbit (altitude of 255 kilometres) before intentionally deorbiting on 11 November 2013.

In deep space [edit]

Deep Infinite 1 [edit]

NASA developed the NSTAR ion engine for use in interplanetary science missions beginning in the tardily-1990s. Information technology was space-tested in the highly successful space probe Deep Infinite 1, launched in 1998. This was the showtime utilize of electric propulsion as the interplanetary propulsion system on a science mission.^[22] Based on the NASA design criteria, Hughes Enquiry Labs, developed the Xenon Ion Propulsion System (XIPS) for performing station keeping on geosynchronous satellites.^[91] Hughes (EDD) manufactured the NSTAR thruster used on the spacecraft.

Hayabusa [edit]

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Bureau's Hayabusa space probe was launched in 2003 and successfully rendezvoused with the asteroid 25143 Itokawa. It was powered past four xenon ion engines, which used microwave electron cyclotron resonance to ionize the propellant and an erosion-resistant carbon/carbon-composite material for its acceleration grid.^[92] Although the ion engines on Hayabusa experienced technical difficulties, in-flight reconfiguration allowed one of the iv engines to be repaired and immune the mission to successfully render to World.^[93]

Smart 1 [edit]

The European Space Agency's satellite SMART-1 launched in 2003 using a Snecma PPS-1350-G Hall thruster to get from GTO to lunar orbit. This satellite completed its mission on 3 September 2006, in a controlled collision on the Moon's surface, after a trajectory deviation so scientists could see the 3 meter crater the touch created on the visible side of the Moon.

Dawn [edit]

Dawn launched on 27 September 2007, to explore the asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres. It used three Deep Space 1 heritage xenon ion thrusters (firing one at a time). Dawn 's ion drive is capable of accelerating from 0 to 97 km/h (60 mph) in four days of continuous firing.^[94] The mission ended on i November 2018, when the spacecraft ran out of hydrazine chemical propellant for its attitude thrusters.^[95]

LISA Pathfinder [edit]

LISA Pathfinder is an ESA spacecraft launched in 2015 to orbit the sun-Globe L1 point. It does not utilize ion thrusters as its chief propulsion system, merely uses both colloid thrusters and FEEP for precise attitude control – the low thrusts of these propulsion devices arrive possible to move the spacecraft incremental distances accurately. It is a test for the LISA mission. The mission concluded on thirty December 2017.

BepiColombo [edit]

ESA's BepiColombo mission was launched to Mercury on xx October 2018.^[96] Information technology uses ion thrusters in combination with swing-bys to get to Mercury, where a chemical rocket will complete orbit insertion.

Double Asteroid Redirection Test [edit]

NASA'southward Double Asteroid Redirection Test (Dart) launched in 2021 and will operate its NEXT-C xenon ion thruster for nigh ane,000 hours to reach the target asteroid in 2022.

Proposed missions [edit]

International Space Station [edit]

Every bit of March 2011^[update], a future launch of an Ad Astra VF-200 200 kW VASIMR electromagnetic thruster was nether consideration for testing on the International Space Station (ISS).^{[97] [98]} However, in 2015, NASA ended plans for flying the VF-200 to the ISS. A NASA spokesperson stated that the ISS "was not an ideal demonstration platform for the desired performance level of the engines". Advertisement Astra stated that tests of a VASIMR thruster on the ISS would remain an option after a future in-space demonstration.^[37]

The VF-200 would have been a flying version of the VX-200.^{[99] [100]} Since the bachelor power from the ISS is less than 200 kW, the ISS VASIMR would have included a trickle-charged battery system assuasive for 15 minutes pulses of thrust. The ISS orbits at a relatively low distance and experiences fairly high levels of atmospheric drag, requiring periodic altitude boosts – a high efficiency engine (high specific impulse) for station-keeping would be valuable, theoretically VASIMR reboosting could cut fuel cost from the current US$210 million annually to one-twentieth.^[97] VASIMR could in theory utilise every bit little as 300 kg of argon gas for ISS station-keeping instead of 7500 kg of chemic fuel – the high exhaust velocity (high specific impulse) would achieve the same acceleration with a smaller corporeality of propellant, compared to chemical propulsion with its lower frazzle velocity needing more fuel.^[101] Hydrogen is generated by the ISS as a by-product and is vented into space.

NASA previously worked on a 50 kW Hall-upshot thruster for the ISS, simply work was stopped in 2005.^[101]

Lunar Gateway [edit]

The Ability and Propulsion Element (PPE) is a module on the Lunar Gateway that provides power generation and propulsion capabilities It is targeting launch on a commercial vehicle in January 2024.^[102] It would probably apply the l kW Advanced Electric Propulsion Arrangement (AEPS) under development at NASA Glenn Inquiry Center and Aerojet Rocketdyne.^[72]

MARS-CAT [edit]

The MARS-Cat (Mars Array of ionospheric Enquiry Satellites using the CubeSat Ambipolar Thruster) mission is a 2 6U CubeSat concept mission to study Mars' ionosphere. The mission would investigate its plasma and magnetic structure, including transient plasma structures, magnetic field structure, magnetic activity and correlation with solar air current drivers.^[64] The CAT thruster is now called the RF thruster and manufactured by Phase 4.^[65]

Interstellar missions [edit]

Geoffrey A. Landis proposed using an ion thruster powered by a space-based laser, in conjunction with a lightsail, to propel an interstellar probe.^{[103] [104]}

Popular culture [edit]

• The idea of an ion engine first appeared in Donald W Horner'southward By Plane to the Sun: Existence the Adventures of a Daring Aviator and his Friends (1910).^[105]
• Ion propulsion is the main thrust source of the spaceship Kosmokrator in the Eastern German/Polish science fiction movie Der Schweigende Stern (1960).^[106] Minute 28:ten.
• In the 1968 episode of Star Trek, "Spock'due south Brain", Scotty is repeatedly impressed by a civilization's use of ion power.^{[107] [108]}
• Ion thrusters repeatedly appear in the Star Wars franchise, nigh notably in the Twin Ion Engine (Necktie) fighter.
• Ion thrusters appear as the primary grade of propulsion in vacuum for the spacecraft in the game Infinite Engineers.
• Ion thrusters are referenced as a method of infinite propulsion in The Martian, where they are used to propel the Hermes crewed spacecraft between Earth and Mars.
• Ion drive is a primary means of propulsion for spacecraft and aircraft in the sci-fi series Worlds Spinning Circular by T. E. Greene (2005, 2012, 2017)
• A pseudo-realistic form of ion thrusters appear in the game Kerbal Space Program, notable for their low thrust and high efficiency much similar their real life counterpart.

See besides [edit]

• Avant-garde Electrical Propulsion Organisation
• Colloid thruster
• Comparison of orbital rocket engines
• Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion
• List of spacecraft with electric propulsion
• Nano-particle field extraction thruster
• Nuclear electric rocket
• Nuclear pulse propulsion
• Plasma actuator
• Plasma propulsion engine
• Spacecraft propulsion

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Bibliography [edit]

• Lerner, Eric J. (October 2000). "Plasma Propulsion in Space" (PDF). The Industrial Physicist. 6 (5): 16–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
• ElectroHydroDynamic Thrusters (EHDT) RMCybernetics

External links [edit]

• Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA
• Colorado State University Electric Propulsion & Plasma Engineering (CEPPE) Laboratory
• Geoffrey A. Landis: Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-powered Interstellar Probe
• Choueiri, Edgar Y. (2009) New dawn of electrical rocket The Ion Drive
• The revolutionary ion engine that took spacecraft to Ceres
• Electric Propulsion Sub-Systems
• Stationary plasma thrusters

Articles [edit]

• "NASA Trumps Star Trek: Ion Drive Live!" The Daily Galaxy 13 April 2009.
• "The Ultimate Space Gadget: NASA'south Ion Bulldoze Alive!" The Daily Galaxy, vii July 2009.
• An early on experimental ion engine is on display at the Aerospace Discovery at the Florida Air Museum.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_thruster

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